Logic

Krishnakanth Allika

2020-10-01 18:22

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library("swirl")

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swirl()

| Welcome to swirl! Please sign in. If you've been here before, use the same name as you
| did then. If you are new, call yourself something unique.

What shall I call you? Krishnakanth Allika

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1: R Programming
2: Take me to the swirl course repository!

Selection: 1

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1: Basic Building Blocks 2: Workspace and Files 3: Sequences of Numbers
4: Vectors 5: Missing Values 6: Subsetting Vectors
7: Matrices and Data Frames 8: Logic 9: Functions
10: lapply and sapply 11: vapply and tapply 12: Looking at Data
13: Simulation 14: Dates and Times 15: Base Graphics

Selection: 8

| | 0%

| This lesson is meant to be a short introduction to logical operations in R.

...

|== | 2%
| There are two logical values in R, also called boolean values. They are TRUE and FALSE.
| In R you can construct logical expressions which will evaluate to either TRUE or FALSE.

...

...

|===== | 6%
| Creating logical expressions requires logical operators. You're probably familiar with
| arithmetic operators like +, -, *, and /. The first logical operator we are
| going to discuss is the equality operator, represented by two equals signs ==. Use
| the equality operator below to find out if TRUE is equal to TRUE.

TRUE==TRUE
[1] TRUE

| That's correct!

|====== | 8%
| Just like arithmetic, logical expressions can be grouped by parenthesis so that the
| entire expression (TRUE == TRUE) == TRUE evaluates to TRUE.

...

|======== | 10%
| To test out this property, try evaluating (FALSE == TRUE) == FALSE .

(FALSE==TRUE)==TRUE
[1] FALSE

| Not quite right, but keep trying. Or, type info() for more options.

| Try typing: (FALSE == TRUE) == FALSE

(FALSE==TRUE)==FALSE
[1] TRUE

| All that hard work is paying off!

|========= | 12%
| The equality operator can also be used to compare numbers. Use == to see if 6 is
| equal to 7.

6==7
[1] FALSE

| Keep up the great work!

...

|============ | 15%
| The less than operator < tests whether the number on the left side of the operator
| (called the left operand) is less than the number on the right side of the operator
| (called the right operand). Write an expression to test whether 6 is less than 7.

6<7
[1] TRUE

| That's correct!

|============== | 17%
| There is also a less-than-or-equal-to operator <= which tests whether the left
| operand is less than or equal to the right operand. Write an expression to test whether
| 10 is less than or equal to 10.

10<=10
[1] TRUE

| You got it!

|=============== | 19%
| Keep in mind that there are the corresponding greater than > and
| greater-than-or-equal-to >= operators.

...

|================= | 21%
| Which of the following evaluates to FALSE?

1: 7 == 7
2: 0 > -36
3: 6 < 8
4: 9 >= 10

Selection: 4

| That's correct!

|================== | 23%
| Which of the following evaluates to TRUE?

1: -6 > -7
2: 7 == 9
3: 9 >= 10
4: 57 < 8

Selection: 1

| That's correct!

|==================== | 25%
| The next operator we will discuss is the 'not equals' operator represented by !=. Not
| equals tests whether two values are unequal, so TRUE != FALSE evaluates to TRUE. Like
| the equality operator, != can also be used with numbers. Try writing an expression to
| see if 5 is not equal to 7.

5!=7
[1] TRUE

| You got it!

|====================== | 27%
| In order to negate boolean expressions you can use the NOT operator. An exclamation
| point ! will cause !TRUE (say: not true) to evaluate to FALSE and !FALSE (say: not
| false) to evaluate to TRUE. Try using the NOT operator and the equals operator to find
| the opposite of whether 5 is equal to 7.

!(5==7)
[1] TRUE

| You are really on a roll!

|======================= | 29%
| Let's take a moment to review. The equals operator == tests whether two boolean
| values or numbers are equal, the not equals operator != tests whether two boolean
| values or numbers are unequal, and the NOT operator ! negates logical expressions so
| that TRUE expressions become FALSE and FALSE expressions become TRUE.

...

|========================= | 31%
| Which of the following evaluates to FALSE?

1: !(0 >= -1)
2: !FALSE
3: 9 < 10
4: 7 != 8

Selection: 1

| That's a job well done!

|========================== | 33%
| What do you think the following expression will evaluate to?: (TRUE != FALSE) == !(6 ==
| 7)

1: %>%
2: FALSE
3: Can there be objective truth when programming?
4: TRUE

Selection: 4

| You are amazing!

|============================ | 35%
| At some point you may need to examine relationships between multiple logical
| expressions. This is where the AND operator and the OR operator come in.

...

|============================= | 37%
| Let's look at how the AND operator works. There are two AND operators in R, & and
| &&. Both operators work similarly, if the right and left operands of AND are both
| TRUE the entire expression is TRUE, otherwise it is FALSE. For example, TRUE & TRUE
| evaluates to TRUE. Try typing FALSE & FALSE to how it is evaluated.

FALSE&FALSE
[1] FALSE

| Your dedication is inspiring!

|=============================== | 38%
| You can use the & operator to evaluate AND across a vector. The && version of AND
| only evaluates the first member of a vector. Let's test both for practice. Type the
| expression TRUE & c(TRUE, FALSE, FALSE).

TRUE&c(TRUE,FALSE,FALSE)
[1] TRUE FALSE FALSE

| That's a job well done!

|================================ | 40%
| What happens in this case is that the left operand TRUE is recycled across every
| element in the vector of the right operand. This is the equivalent statement as c(TRUE,
| TRUE, TRUE) & c(TRUE, FALSE, FALSE).

...

|================================== | 42%
| Now we'll type the same expression except we'll use the && operator. Type the
| expression TRUE && c(TRUE, FALSE, FALSE).

TRUE&&c(TRUE,FALSE,FALSE)
[1] TRUE

| That's correct!

|=================================== | 44%
| In this case, the left operand is only evaluated with the first member of the right
| operand (the vector). The rest of the elements in the vector aren't evaluated at all in
| this expression.

...

|===================================== | 46%
| The OR operator follows a similar set of rules. The | version of OR evaluates OR
| across an entire vector, while the || version of OR only evaluates the first member
| of a vector.

...

|====================================== | 48%
| An expression using the OR operator will evaluate to TRUE if the left operand or the
| right operand is TRUE. If both are TRUE, the expression will evaluate to TRUE, however
| if neither are TRUE, then the expression will be FALSE.

...

|======================================== | 50%
| Let's test out the vectorized version of the OR operator. Type the expression TRUE |
| c(TRUE, FALSE, FALSE).

TRUE|c(TRUE, FALSE, FALSE)
[1] TRUE TRUE TRUE

| You're the best!

|========================================== | 52%
| Now let's try out the non-vectorized version of the OR operator. Type the expression
| TRUE || c(TRUE, FALSE, FALSE).

TRUE||c(TRUE, FALSE, FALSE)
[1] TRUE

| You are really on a roll!

|=========================================== | 54%
| Logical operators can be chained together just like arithmetic operators. The
| expressions: 6 != 10 && FALSE && 1 >= 2 or TRUE || 5 < 9.3 || FALSE are perfectly
| normal to see.

...

|============================================= | 56%
| As you may recall, arithmetic has an order of operations and so do logical expressions.
| All AND operators are evaluated before OR operators. Let's look at an example of an
| ambiguous case. Type: 5 > 8 || 6 != 8 && 4 > 3.9

5 > 8 || 6 != 8 && 4 > 3.9
[1] TRUE

| You are quite good my friend!

|============================================== | 58%
| Let's walk through the order of operations in the above case. First the left and right
| operands of the AND operator are evaluated. 6 is not equal 8, 4 is greater than 3.9,
| therefore both operands are TRUE so the resulting expression TRUE && TRUE evaluates
| to TRUE. Then the left operand of the OR operator is evaluated: 5 is not greater than 8
| so the entire expression is reduced to FALSE || TRUE. Since the right operand of this
| expression is TRUE the entire expression evaluates to TRUE.

...

|================================================ | 60%
| Which one of the following expressions evaluates to TRUE?

1: TRUE && FALSE || 9 >= 4 && 3 < 6
2: FALSE || TRUE && FALSE
3: 99.99 > 100 || 45 < 7.3 || 4 != 4.0
4: TRUE && 62 < 62 && 44 >= 44

Selection: 1

| Excellent work!

|================================================= | 62%
| Which one of the following expressions evaluates to FALSE?

1: FALSE && 6 >= 6 || 7 >= 8 || 50 <= 49.5
2: FALSE || TRUE && 6 != 4 || 9 > 4
3: 6 >= -9 && !(6 > 7) && !(!TRUE)
4: !(8 > 4) || 5 == 5.0 && 7.8 >= 7.79

Selection: 1

| You got it!

|=================================================== | 63%
| Now that you're familiar with R's logical operators you can take advantage of a few
| functions that R provides for dealing with logical expressions.

...

|==================================================== | 65%
| The function isTRUE() takes one argument. If that argument evaluates to TRUE, the
| function will return TRUE. Otherwise, the function will return FALSE. Try using this
| function by typing: isTRUE(6 > 4)

isTRUE(6>4)
[1] TRUE

| You got it right!

|====================================================== | 67%
| Which of the following evaluates to TRUE?

1: isTRUE(NA)
2: isTRUE(!TRUE)
3: !isTRUE(4 < 3)
4: isTRUE(3)
5: !isTRUE(8 != 5)

Selection: 5

| You're close...I can feel it! Try it again.

| isTRUE() will only return TRUE if the statement passed to it as an argument is TRUE.

1: isTRUE(NA)
2: !isTRUE(4 < 3)
3: isTRUE(3)
4: !isTRUE(8 != 5)
5: isTRUE(!TRUE)

Selection: 2

| You are amazing!

|======================================================= | 69%
| The function identical() will return TRUE if the two R objects passed to it as
| arguments are identical. Try out the identical() function by typing: identical('twins',
| 'twins')

identical('twins','twins')
[1] TRUE

| Excellent job!

|========================================================= | 71%
| Which of the following evaluates to TRUE?

1: identical(5 > 4, 3 < 3.1)
2: !identical(7, 7)
3: identical(4, 3.1)
4: identical('hello', 'Hello')

Selection: 1

| You are amazing!

|========================================================== | 73%
| You should also be aware of the xor() function, which takes two arguments. The xor()
| function stands for exclusive OR. If one argument evaluates to TRUE and one argument
| evaluates to FALSE, then this function will return TRUE, otherwise it will return
| FALSE. Try out the xor() function by typing: xor(5 == 6, !FALSE)

xor(5 == 6, !FALSE)
[1] TRUE

| Your dedication is inspiring!

|============================================================ | 75%
| 5 == 6 evaluates to FALSE, !FALSE evaluates to TRUE, so xor(FALSE, TRUE) evaluates to
| TRUE. On the other hand if the first argument was changed to 5 == 5 and the second
| argument was unchanged then both arguments would have been TRUE, so xor(TRUE, TRUE)
| would have evaluated to FALSE.

...

|============================================================== | 77%
| Which of the following evaluates to FALSE?

1: xor(!!TRUE, !!FALSE)
2: xor(4 >= 9, 8 != 8.0)
3: xor(identical(xor, 'xor'), 7 == 7.0)
4: xor(!isTRUE(TRUE), 6 > -1)

Selection: 8!=8.0
Enter an item from the menu, or 0 to exit
Selection: 2

| That's the answer I was looking for.

|=============================================================== | 79%
| For the next few questions, we're going to need to create a vector of integers called
| ints. Create this vector by typing: ints <- sample(10)

ints<-sample(10)

| You got it!

|================================================================= | 81%
| Now simply display the contents of ints.

ints
[1] 7 1 3 4 8 2 10 6 9 5

| You are quite good my friend!

|================================================================== | 83%
| The vector ints is a random sampling of integers from 1 to 10 without replacement.
| Let's say we wanted to ask some logical questions about contents of ints. If we type
| ints > 5, we will get a logical vector corresponding to whether each element of ints is
| greater than 5. Try typing: ints > 5

ints>5
[1] TRUE FALSE FALSE FALSE TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE

| Perseverance, that's the answer.

|==================================================================== | 85%
| We can use the resulting logical vector to ask other questions about ints. The which()
| function takes a logical vector as an argument and returns the indices of the vector
| that are TRUE. For example which(c(TRUE, FALSE, TRUE)) would return the vector c(1, 3).

...

|===================================================================== | 87%
| Use the which() function to find the indices of ints that are greater than 7.

which(int>7)
Error in which(int > 7) : object 'int' not found
which(ints>7)
[1] 5 7 9

| Great job!

|======================================================================= | 88%
| Which of the following commands would produce the indices of the elements in ints that
| are less than or equal to 2?

1: ints < 2
2: ints <= 2
3: which(ints <= 2)
4: which(ints < 2)

Selection: 3

| All that practice is paying off!

|======================================================================== | 90%
| Like the which() function, the functions any() and all() take logical vectors as their
| argument. The any() function will return TRUE if one or more of the elements in the
| logical vector is TRUE. The all() function will return TRUE if every element in the
| logical vector is TRUE.

...

|========================================================================== | 92%
| Use the any() function to see if any of the elements of ints are less than zero.

any(ints<0)
[1] FALSE

| Nice work!

|=========================================================================== | 94%
| Use the all() function to see if all of the elements of ints are greater than zero.

all(ints>0)
[1] TRUE

| You're the best!

|============================================================================= | 96%
| Which of the following evaluates to TRUE?

1: any(ints == 2.5)
2: all(c(TRUE, FALSE, TRUE))
3: all(ints == 10)
4: any(ints == 10)

Selection: 4

| Keep up the great work!

|============================================================================== | 98%
| That's all for this introduction to logic in R. If you really want to see what you can
| do with logic, check out the control flow lesson!

...

|================================================================================| 100%
| Would you like to receive credit for completing this course on Coursera.org?

1: No
2: Yes

Selection: 2
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Grade submission succeeded!

| That's a job well done!

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1: R Programming
2: Take me to the swirl course repository!

Selection: 0

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ls()
[1] "ints"
rm(list=ls())

Last updated 2020-10-01 18:22:16.725715 IST

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